Fig. 7

Natural and engineered exosome-based biomaterials promote innervated and vascularized bone regeneration. a At different stages of bone regeneration, Schwann cell-exosome (SC-exos)/hydrogel improves the osteogenic microenvironment and promotes neurovascularized bone regeneration [133]. b Schematic showing electrospun biomimetic periosteum loaded with aptamers engineered exosomes. These entities can target injured axons and regenerate blood vessels and bone. c Compared with the control group, aptamers engineered exosomes promoted dorsal root ganglion (DRG) axons growth and showed clear guidance [137]. d The N-exos-functionalized LDM-printed hierarchical porous scaffolds could promote the axonal growth and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) expression of sensory neurons and synergistically stimulate the osteogenic differentiation capacity of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) [142]. ARG arginase, BDNF brain-derived neurotrophic factor, Exos exosomes, FFT Fast Fourier Transform, GDNF glial-derived neurotrophic factor, iNOS inducible nitric oxide synthase, JUK3 c-Jun N-terminal kinase 3, LDM low temperature deposition modelling, MAPK mitogen-activated protein kinase, NF200 neurofilament 200, NGF nerve growth factor, NT3 neurotrophin-3, PPE PCL@PEI@exosome, PPEA PCL@PEI@exosome@aptamer, SMAD small mothers against decapentaplegic homolog, TGF-β transforming growth factor-β